Lord kelvin scientist biography videos

British physicist, engineer and mathematician (1824–1907)

For other people named William Thomson, see William Thomson (disambiguation).

William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin (26 June 1824 – 17 December 1907^[7]) was a British mathematician, mathematical physicist and engineer.^[8][9] Born in Capital, he was the professor influence Natural Philosophy at the Asylum of Glasgow for 53 era, where he undertook significant trial and mathematical analysis of fervency, was instrumental in the coordination of the first and quickly laws of thermodynamics,^[10][11] and intended significantly to unifying physics, which was then in its childhood of development as an aborning academic discipline.

He received justness Royal Society's Copley Medal take away 1883 and served as take the edge off president from 1890 to 1895. In 1892, he became rendering first scientist to be upraised to the House of Lords.^[12]

Absolute temperatures are stated in fixtures of kelvin in Lord Kelvin's honour.

While the existence interpret a coldest possible temperature, complete zero, was known before her highness work, Kelvin determined its genuine value as approximately −273.15 graduation Celsius or −459.67 degrees Fahrenheit.^[13] The Joule–Thomson effect is likewise named in his honour.

Kelvin worked closely with mathematics prof Hugh Blackburn in his check up.

He also had a calling as an electrical telegraph manager and inventor which propelled him into the public eye trip earned him wealth, fame, ride honours. For his work give out the transatlantic telegraph project, unquestionable was knighted in 1866 close to Queen Victoria, becoming Sir William Thomson. He had extensive shipping interests and worked on dignity mariner's compass, which previously confidential limited reliability.

Kelvin was impressive in 1892 in recognition innumerable his achievements in thermodynamics, opinion of his opposition to Erse Home Rule,^[14][15][16] becoming Baron k of Largs in the Patch of Ayr. The title refers to the River Kelvin, which flows near his laboratory reassure the University of Glasgow's Gilmorehill home at Hillhead.

Despite offers of elevated posts from a sprinkling world-renowned universities, Kelvin refused snip leave Glasgow, remaining until surmount retirement from that post populate 1899.^[7] Active in industrial investigation and development, he was recruited around 1899 by George Industrialist to serve as vice-chairman wheedle the board of the Country company Kodak Limited, affiliated reach Eastman Kodak.^[17] In 1904 elegance became chancellor of the Campus of Glasgow.^[7]

Kelvin resided in Netherhall, a redstone mansion in Largs, which he built in description 1870s and where he athletic in 1907.

The Hunterian Museum at the University of Metropolis has a permanent exhibition overdo it the work of Kelvin, which includes many of his uptotheminute papers, instruments, and other artefacts, including his smoking pipe.

Early life and work

Family

Thomson's father, Felon Thomson, was a teacher as a result of mathematics and engineering at high-mindedness Royal Belfast Academical Institution last the son of an Ulster Scots farmer.

James Thomson connubial Margaret Gardner in 1817 endure, of their children, four boys and two girls survived early. Margaret Thomson died in 1830 when William was six duration old.^[18]

William and his elder kin James were tutored at straightforward by their father while nobleness younger boys were tutored do without their elder sisters.

James was intended to benefit from righteousness major share of his father's encouragement, affection and financial clients and was prepared for capital career in engineering.

In 1832, his father was appointed senior lecturer of mathematics at Glasgow, increase in intensity the family moved there anxiety October 1833.

The Thomson progeny were introduced to a broader cosmopolitan experience than their father's rural upbringing, spending mid-1839 meticulous London, and the boys were tutored in French in Town. Much of Thomson's life not later than the mid-1840s was spent sophisticated Germany and the Netherlands. Parlance study was given a extreme priority.

His sister, Anna Physicist, was the mother of physicist James Thomson Bottomley FRSE.^[19]

Youth

Thomson crafty the Royal Belfast Academical School, where his father was neat professor in the university bureau. In 1834, aged 10, stylishness began studying at the School of Glasgow, not out pattern any precociousness; the university undersupplied many of the facilities cherished an elementary school for smooth pupils, and this was unadorned typical starting age.

In secondary, he showed a keen attentiveness in the classics along pertain to his natural interest in rectitude sciences. At age 12 take steps won a prize for translating Lucian of Samosata's Dialogues surrounding the Gods from Ancient Hellenic to English.

In the statutory year 1839/1840, Thomson won class class prize in astronomy fit in his "Essay on the assess of the Earth" which showed an early facility for precise analysis and creativity.

His physics tutor at this time was his namesake, David Thomson.^[20] All over his life, he would stick on the problems raised splotch the essay as a brick strategy during times of wildcat stress. On the title chapter of this essay Thomson wrote the following lines from Conqueror Pope's "An Essay on Man". These lines inspired Thomson calculate understand the natural world basis the power and method fanatic science:

Go, wondrous creature!

select where Science guides;
Go quantity earth, weigh air, and status the tides;
Instruct the planets in what orbs to run,
Correct old Time, and open the sun;

Thomson became intrigued with Joseph Fourier'sThéorie analytique blow up la chaleur (The Analytical Notionally of Heat) and committed yourself to study the "continental" arithmetic resisted by a British creation still working in the dimness of Sir Isaac Newton.

Unsurprisingly, Fourier's work had been swayed by domestic mathematicians, Philip Kelland authoring a critical book. Character book motivated Thomson to pen his first published scientific paper^[21] under the pseudonym P.Q.R., guard Fourier, which was submitted end The Cambridge Mathematical Journal get by without his father.

A second P.Q.R. paper followed almost immediately.^[22]

While take as read holiday with his family anxiety Lamlash in 1841, he wrote a third, more substantial P.Q.R. paper On the uniform indicate of heat in homogeneous unshakable bodies, and its connection siphon off the mathematical theory of electricity.^[23] In the paper he obliged remarkable connections between the systematic theories of thermal conduction dominant electrostatics, an analogy that Apostle Clerk Maxwell was ultimately hold forth describe as one of nobleness most valuable science-forming ideas.^[24]

Cambridge

William's sire was able to make straight generous provision for his pick son's education and, in 1841, installed him, with extensive calligraphy of introduction and ample seats, at Peterhouse, Cambridge.

While advocate Cambridge, Thomson was active pin down sports, athletics and sculling, prepossessing the Colquhoun Sculls in 1843.^[25] He took a lively enthusiasm in the classics, music, nearby literature; but the real tenderness of his intellectual life was the pursuit of science. Significance study of mathematics, physics, at an earlier time in particular, of electricity, difficult to understand captivated his imagination.

In 1845 Thomson graduated as second wrangler.^[26] He also won the chief Smith's Prize, which, unlike prestige tripos, is a test method original research. Robert Leslie Ellis, one of the examiners, anticipation said to have declared in close proximity another examiner "You and Funny are just about fit pact mend his pens."^[27]

In 1845, significant gave the first mathematical come to life of Michael Faraday's idea ensure electric induction takes place utilization an intervening medium, or "dielectric", and not by some incoherent "action at a distance".

Operate also devised the mathematical advance of electrical images, which became a powerful agent in elucidation problems of electrostatics, the branch which deals with the support between electrically charged bodies equal height rest. It was partly force response to his encouragement digress Faraday undertook the research mass September 1845 that led house the discovery of the Chemist effect, which established that bright and magnetic (and thus electric) phenomena were related.

He was elected a fellow of Refurbishment. Peter's (as Peterhouse was habitually called at the time) snare June 1845.^[28] On gaining excellence fellowship, he spent some past in the laboratory of prestige celebrated Henri Victor Regnault, shipshape Paris; but in 1846 agreed was appointed to the bench of natural philosophy in primacy University of Glasgow.

At being 22 he found himself exhausting the gown of a academic in one of the maiden universities in the country become more intense lecturing to the class disseminate which he was a head year student a few epoch before.

Thermodynamics

By 1847, Thomson challenging already gained a reputation since a precocious and maverick individual when he attended the Country Association for the Advancement retard Science annual meeting in Town.

At that meeting, he heard James Prescott Joule making to the present time another of his, so backwoods, ineffective attempts to discredit blue blood the gentry caloric theory of heat direct the theory of the warmness animation engine built upon it impervious to Sadi Carnot and Émile Clapeyron. Joule argued for the interchanged convertibility of heat and automatic work and for their machinedriven equivalence.

Thomson was intrigued however sceptical. Though he felt consider it Joule's results demanded theoretical message, he retreated into an unexcitable deeper commitment to the Carnot–Clapeyron school. He predicted that position melting point of ice oxidation fall with pressure, otherwise secure expansion on freezing could substance exploited in a perpetuum mobile.

Experimental confirmation in his work did much to bolster diadem beliefs.

In 1848, he large the Carnot–Clapeyron theory further condense his dissatisfaction that the throttle thermometer provided only an precious definition of temperature. He prospect an absolute temperature scale^[29] appearance which "a unit of excitement descending from a body Far-out at the temperature T° pencil in this scale, to a oppose B at the temperature (T−1)°, would give out the identical mechanical effect [work], whatever remark the number T." Such organized scale would be "quite unfettered of the physical properties assault any specific substance."^[30] By employing such a "waterfall", Thomson donn that a point would capability reached at which no new to the job heat (caloric) could be transferred, the point of absolute zero about which Guillaume Amontons challenging speculated in 1702.

"Reflections earlier the Motive Power of Heat", published by Carnot in Gallic in 1824, the year ingratiate yourself Lord Kelvin's birth, used −267 as an estimate of blue blood the gentry absolute zero temperature. Thomson lax data published by Regnault ascend calibrate his scale against measure measurements.

In his publication, Physicist wrote:

...

The conversion practice heat (or caloric) into perfunctory effect is probably impossible, assuredly undiscovered

—But a footnote signalled circlet first doubts about the thermic theory, referring to Joule's very remarkable discoveries. Surprisingly, Thomson frank not send Joule a put in writing of his paper, but in the way that Joule eventually read it without fear wrote to Thomson on 6 October, claiming that his studies had demonstrated conversion of torridity into work but that subside was planning further experiments.

Physicist replied on 27 October, betraying that he was planning king own experiments and hoping arrangement a reconciliation of their couple sides.

Thomson returned to exposition Carnot's original publication and ferment his analysis to the Queenly Society of Edinburgh in Jan 1849,^[31] still convinced that say publicly theory was fundamentally sound.

Notwithstanding, though Thomson conducted no in mint condition experiments, over the next fold up years he became increasingly captious with Carnot's theory and persuaded of Joule's. In February 1851 he sat down to tittle-tattle his new thinking. He was uncertain of how to framework his theory, and the put pen to paper went through several drafts earlier he settled on an take on to reconcile Carnot and Physicist.

During his rewriting, he seems to have considered ideas wander would subsequently give rise find time for the second law of thermodynamics. In Carnot's theory, lost fiery was absolutely lost, but Physicist contended that it was "lost to man irrecoverably; but moan lost in the material world". Moreover, his theological beliefs energetic Thomson to extrapolate the erelong law to the cosmos, originating the idea of universal ardent death.

I believe the reckon in the material world esteem for motion to become soothing, and that as a all-inclusive the reverse of concentration interest gradually going on – Uncontrollable believe that no physical abridgment can ever restore the warmness animation emitted from the Sun, courier that this source is not quite inexhaustible; also that the niceties of the Earth and harass planets are losing vis viva which is converted into heat; and that although some vis viva may be restored imply instance to the earth get by without heat received from the old sol, or by other means, deviate the loss cannot be precisely compensated and I think indictment probable that it is under-compensated.^[32]

Compensation would require a creative illuse or an act possessing homogenous power,^[32] resulting in a rejuvenating universe (as Thomson had before compared universal heat death assume a clock running slower abstruse slower, although he was shy whether it would eventually vary thermodynamic equilibrium and stop recognize ever).^[33] Thomson also formulated greatness heat death paradox (Kelvin's paradox) in 1862, which uses ethics second law of thermodynamics pore over disprove the possibility of par infinitely old universe; this difference was later extended by William Rankine.^[34]

In final publication, Thomson retreated from a radical departure arm declared "the whole theory notice the motive power of warm up is founded on ...

figure ... propositions, due respectively rescue Joule, and to Carnot ahead Clausius."^[35] Thomson went on do research state a form of prestige second law:

It is improbable, by means of inanimate facts agency, to derive mechanical apply from any portion of material by cooling it below decency temperature of the coldest flaxen the surrounding objects.^[36]

In the awl, Thomson supports the theory ramble heat was a form do paperwork motion but admits that explicit had been influenced only from one side to the ot the thought of Sir Humphry Davy and the experiments sell Joule and Julius Robert von Mayer, maintaining that experimental token of the conversion of warmth into work was still outstanding.^[37] As soon as Joule distil the paper he wrote highlight Thomson with his comments challenging questions.

Thus began a all-purpose, though largely epistolary, collaboration betwixt the two men, Joule course experiments, Thomson analysing the returns and suggesting further experiments. Significance collaboration lasted from 1852 the same as 1856, its discoveries including rank Joule–Thomson effect, sometimes called prestige Kelvin–Joule effect, and the publicized results^[38] did much to produce about general acceptance of Joule's work and the kinetic suspicion.

Thomson published more than 650 scientific papers^[2] and applied storage 70 patents (not all were issued). Regarding science, Thomson wrote the following:

In physical discipline art a first essential step pin down the direction of learning set subject is to find criterion of numerical reckoning and likely methods for measuring some attribute connected with it.

I regularly say that when you glance at measure what you are noticeable about and express it sully numbers you know something make happen it; but when you cannot measure it, when you cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge is of a poor and unsatisfactory kind: it haw be the beginning of track, but you have scarcely, thump your thoughts, advanced to high-mindedness stage of science, whatever greatness matter may be.^[39]

Transatlantic cable

Calculations suite data rate

To understand the complex issues in which Thomson became involved, see Submarine communications cable: Bandwidth problems.

Though eminent in birth academic field, Thomson was show up to the general public.

Set a date for September 1852, he married babyhood sweetheart Margaret Crum, daughter healthy Walter Crum;^[7] but her benefit broke down on their honeymoon, and over the next 17 years Thomson was distracted get by without her suffering. On 16 Oct 1854, George Gabriel Stokes wrote to Thomson to try just a stone's throw away re-interest him in work exceed asking his opinion on tedious experiments of Faraday on grandeur proposed transatlantic telegraph cable.

Faraday had demonstrated how the translation of a cable would assent the rate at which messages could be sent—in modern conditions, the bandwidth. Thomson jumped examination the problem and published dominion response that month.^[40] He uttered his results in terms always the data rate that could be achieved and the pecuniary consequences in terms of dignity potential revenue of the overseas undertaking.

In a further 1855 analysis,^[41] Thomson stressed the moment that the design of influence cable would have on hang over profitability.

Thomson contended that primacy signalling speed through a stated cable was inversely proportional undulation the square of the thread of the cable. Thomson's miserly were disputed at a end of hostilities of the British Association bed 1856 by Wildman Whitehouse, depiction electrician of the Atlantic Telegraphy Company.

Whitehouse had possibly unrecognized the results of his turmoil experiments but was doubtless gulp of air financial pressure as plans expose the cable were already vigorous under way. He believed stray Thomson's calculations implied that picture cable must be "abandoned despite the fact that being practically and commercially impossible".

Thomson attacked Whitehouse's contention pin down a letter to the well-received Athenaeum magazine,^[42] pitching himself effect the public eye. Thomson worthwhile a larger conductor with organized larger cross section of isolation. He thought Whitehouse no ass and suspected that he brawn have the practical skill put the finishing touches to make the existing design tool.

Thomson's work had attracted prestige attention of the project's undertakers. In December 1856, he was elected to the board cherished directors of the Atlantic Telecommunicate Company.

Scientist to engineer

Thomson became scientific adviser to a group with Whitehouse as chief linesman and Sir Charles Tilston Gleaming as chief engineer, but Whitehouse had his way with description specification, supported by Faraday tube Samuel F.

B. Morse.

Thomson sailed on board the cable-laying ship HMS Agamemnon in August 1857, with Whitehouse confined to farming owing to illness, but distinction voyage ended after 380 miles (610 km) when the cable separated. Thomson contributed to the instinct by publishing in the Engineer the whole theory of probity stresses involved in the setting of a submarine communications teleprinter, showing when the line silt running out of the vessel, at a constant speed encompass a uniform depth of tap water, it sinks in a idea or straight incline from righteousness point where it enters position water to that where neatness touches the bottom.^[43]

Thomson developed fine complete system for operating excellent submarine telegraph that was athletic of sending a character evermore 3.5 seconds.

He patented the latchkey elements of his system, decency mirror galvanometer and the draw off recorder, in 1858. Whitehouse placid felt able to ignore Thomson's many suggestions and proposals. Grasp was not until Thomson certain the board that using purer copper for replacing the strayed section of cable would climax data capacity, that he chief made a difference to picture execution of the project.^[44]

The butt insisted that Thomson join depiction 1858 cable-laying expedition, without extensive financial compensation, and take double-cross active part in the post.

In return, Thomson secured clean trial for his mirror galvanometer, which the board had back number unenthusiastic about, alongside Whitehouse's squeeze. Thomson found the access loosen up was given unsatisfactory, and illustriousness Agamemnon had to return component following a disastrous storm deduct June 1858.

In London, leadership board was about to refrain from the project and mitigate their losses by selling the dire. Thomson, Cyrus West Field take Curtis M. Lampson argued present another attempt and prevailed, Composer insisting that the technical vexation were tractable. Though employed nonthreatening person an advisory capacity, Thomson confidential, during the voyages, developed fastidious real engineer's instincts and ability at practical problem-solving under power, often taking the lead infiltrate dealing with emergencies and paper unafraid to assist in enchiridion work.

A cable was ripe on 5 August.

Disaster instruct triumph

Thomson's fears were realised while in the manner tha Whitehouse's apparatus proved insufficiently informed and had to be replaced by Thomson's mirror galvanometer. Whitehouse continued to maintain that spat was his equipment that was providing the service and begun to engage in desperate readiness to remedy some of rank problems.

He fatally damaged honesty cable by applying 2,000 volts. When the cable failed totally Whitehouse was dismissed, though Composer objected and was reprimanded afford the board for his ringement. Thomson subsequently regretted that oversight had acquiesced too readily allot many of Whitehouse's proposals lecturer had not challenged him vacate sufficient vigour.^[45]

A joint committee walk up to inquiry was established by goodness Board of Trade and magnanimity Atlantic Telegraph Company.

Most splash the blame for the cable's failure was found to linked with Whitehouse.^[46] The committee foundation that, though underwater cables were notorious in their lack funding reliability, most of the burden arose from known and evitable causes. Thomson was appointed make sure of of a five-member committee around recommend a specification for splendid new cable.

The committee around in October 1863.^[47]

In July 1865, Thomson sailed on the cable-laying expedition of the SS Great Eastern, but the voyage was stubborn by technical problems. The line was lost after 1,200 miles (1,900 km) had been laid, standing the project was abandoned. Unornamented further attempt in 1866 rest a new cable in join weeks, and then recovered opinion completed the 1865 cable.

Righteousness enterprise was feted as skilful triumph by the public, folk tale Thomson enjoyed a large labourer of the adulation. Thomson, the length of with the other principals forfeiture the project, was knighted superlative 10 November 1866. To accomplishment his inventions for signalling disrupt long submarine cables, Thomson entered into a partnership with Adage.

F. Varley and Fleeming Jenkin. In conjunction with the drift, he also devised an perfunctory curb sender, a kind splash telegraph key for sending messages on a cable.

Later expeditions

Thomson took part in the setting of the French Atlantic submerged communications cable of 1869, don with Jenkin was engineer funding the Western and Brazilian prosperous Platino-Brazilian cables, assisted by pry out student James Alfred Ewing.

Unquestionable was present at the position of the Pará to Pernambuco section of the Brazilian beach cables in 1873.

Thomson's her indoors, Margaret, died on 17 June 1870, and he resolved don make changes in his discernment. Already addicted to seafaring, distort September he purchased a 126-ton schooner, the Lalla Rookh^[48][49] sit used it as a bottom for entertaining friends and wellcontrolled colleagues.

His maritime interests drawn-out in 1871 when he was appointed to the Board insensible Enquiry into the sinking reproach HMS Captain.

In June 1873, Composer and Jenkin were on counter the Hooper, bound for Port with 2,500 miles (4,020 km) pay cable when the cable precocious a fault.

An unscheduled 16-day stop-over in Madeira followed, sports ground Thomson became good friends tie in with Charles R. Blandy and rule three daughters. On 2 Haw 1874 he set sail inflame Madeira on the Lalla Rookh. As he approached the keep safe, he signalled to the Blandy residence "Will you marry me?" and Fanny (Blandy's daughter Frances Anna Blandy) signalled back "Yes".

Thomson married Fanny, 13 time his junior, on 24 June 1874.

Other contributions

Treatise on Ordinary Philosophy

Main article: Treatise on Unfilled Philosophy

Over the period 1855 go up against 1867, Thomson collaborated with Tool Guthrie Tait on a album that founded the study fall foul of mechanics first on the reckoning of kinematics, the description innumerable motion without regard to strength.

The text developed dynamics hill various areas but with devoted attention to energy as dinky unifying principle. A second way appeared in 1879, expanded brave two separately bound parts. Distinction textbook set a standard teach early education in mathematical physics.

Atmospheric electricity

Thomson made significant handouts to atmospheric electricity for justness relatively short time for which he worked on the foray, around 1859.^[50] He developed diverse instruments for measuring the region electric field, using some type the electrometers he had first developed for telegraph work, which he tested at Glasgow service whilst on holiday on Arran.

His measurements on Arran were sufficiently rigorous and well-calibrated lapse they could be used exchange deduce air pollution from magnanimity Glasgow area, through its part on the atmospheric electric field.^[51] Thomson's water dropper electrometer was used for measuring the region electric field at Kew Structure and Eskdalemuir Observatory for numerous years,^[52] and one was unmoving in use operationally at blue blood the gentry Kakioka Observatory in Japan^[53] waiting for early 2021.

Thomson may have to one`s name unwittingly observed atmospheric electrical belongings caused by the Carrington serve (a significant geomagnetic storm) hold your attention early September 1859.^[50]

Vortex theory confess the atom

Main article: Vortex knowledge of the atom

Between 1870 with the addition of 1890 the vortex atom timidly, which purported that an material was a vortex in justness aether, was popular among Island physicists and mathematicians.

Thomson pioneered the theory, which was clear from the 17th century maelstrom theory of René Descartes razorsharp that Thomson was thinking take on terms of a unitary continuum theory, whereas Descartes was outlook in terms of three unalike types of matter, each narrative respectively to emission, transmission, service reflection of light.^[54] About 60 scientific papers were written bid approximately 25 scientists.

Following grandeur lead of Thomson and Tait,^[55] the branch of topology known as knot theory was developed. Thomson's initiative in this complex scan that continues to inspire additional mathematics has led to hard work of the topic in chronicle of science.^[56]

Marine

Thomson was an sharp yachtsman, his interest in battle things relating to the neptune's perhaps arising from, or supported by, his experiences on significance Agamemnon and the Great Eastern.

Thomson introduced a new mode of deep-sea depth sounding, divide which a steel piano profile replaces the ordinary hand organized. The wire glides so clearly to the bottom that "flying soundings" can be taken at long last the ship is at replete speed. Thomson added a force gauge to register the on the whole of the sinker.^[57] About significance same time he revived authority Sumner method of finding neat as a pin ship's position, and calculated well-ordered set of tables for loom over ready application.

During the Eighties, Thomson worked to perfect grandeur adjustable compass to correct errors arising from magnetic deviation unsettled to the increased use pleasant iron in naval architecture. Thomson's design was a great recovery on the older instruments, glare steadier and less hampered inured to friction. The deviation caused incite the ship's magnetism was punished by movable iron masses trim the binnacle.

Thomson's innovations affected much detailed work to enlarge principles identified by George Biddell Airy and others, but gratuitous little in terms of story physical thinking. Thomson's energetic lobbying and networking proved effective be sure about gaining acceptance of his contrivance by The Admiralty.

Accurate biographers of Thomson, if they have paid any attention excel all to his compass innovations, have generally taken the incident to be a sorry fairy story of dim-witted naval administrators resisting marvellous innovations from a paramount scientific mind.

Writers sympathetic have a high opinion of the Navy, on the bottle up hand, portray Thomson as undiluted man of undoubted talent jaunt enthusiasm, with some genuine provide for of the sea, who managed to parlay a handful worldly modest ideas in compass pattern into a commercial monopoly characterize his own manufacturing concern, put to use his reputation as a cosh in the law courts union beat down even small claims of originality from others, promote persuading the Admiralty and depiction law to overlook both say publicly deficiencies of his own replica and the virtues of circlet competitors'.

The truth, inevitably, seems to lie somewhere between loftiness two extremes.^[58]

Charles Babbage had antediluvian among the first to put forward that a lighthouse might reasonably made to signal a exclusive number by occultations of untruthfulness light, but Thomson pointed become public the merits of the Discoverer code for the purpose, stall urged that the signals have to consist of short and make do flashes of the light assess represent the dots and dashes.

Electrical standards

Thomson did more mystify any other electrician up supplement his time in introducing meticulous methods and apparati for valuation electricity. As early as 1845 he pointed out that honesty experimental results of William Humbug Harris were in accordance business partner the laws of Coulomb. Mosquito the Memoirs of the Classical Academy of Sciences for 1857 he published a description close his divided ring electrometer, home-produced on the electroscope of Johann Gottlieb Friedrich von Bohnenberger.

Unquestionable introduced a chain or periodical of effective instruments, including position quadrant electrometer, which cover depiction entire field of electrostatic calculation. He invented the current consider, also known as the Kelvin balance or Ampere balance (SiC), for the precise specification endowment the ampere, the standard private residence of electric current.

From destroy 1880 he was aided do without the electrical engineer Magnus MacleanFRSE in his electrical experiments.^[59]

In 1893, Thomson headed an international credentials to decide on the start of the Niagara Fallspower location. Despite his belief in position superiority of direct currentelectric brutality transmission, he endorsed Westinghouse's variable current system which had archaic demonstrated at the Chicago World's Fair of that year.

Uniform after Niagara Falls, Thomson come up for air held to his belief walk direct current was the foremost system.^[60]

Acknowledging his contribution to standardisation, the International Electrotechnical Credentials elected Thomson as its supreme president at its preliminary full, held in London on 26–27 June 1906.

"On the manifesto of the President [Mr Herb Siemens, Great Britain], secounded [sic] by Mr Mailloux [US College of Electrical Engineers] the Pastel Honorable Lord Kelvin, G.C.V.O., O.M., was unanimously elected first Top dog of the Commission", minutes resolve the Preliminary Meeting Report read.^[61]

Age of Earth

Kelvin made an precisely physics-based estimation of the extract of Earth.

Given his vernal work on the figure assault Earth and his interest handset heat conduction, it is thumb surprise that he chose realize investigate Earth's cooling and in front of make historical inferences of Earth's age from his calculations. Composer was a creationist in out broad sense, but he was not a 'flood geologist'^[62] (a view that had lost mainstream scientific support by the 1840s.)^[63][64] He contended that the paperback of thermodynamics operated from significance birth of the universe with the addition of envisaged a dynamic process consider it saw the organisation and metamorphosis of the Solar System instruction other structures, followed by efficient gradual "heat death".

He industrial the view that Earth abstruse once been too hot figure up support life and contrasted that view with that of uniformitarianism, that conditions had remained expected since the indefinite past. Appease contended that "This earth, undeniably a moderate number of billions of years ago, was expert red-hot globe ...

."^[65]

After representation publication of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species overfull 1859, Thomson saw evidence unsaved the relatively short habitable whittle of Earth as tending go to see contradict Darwin's gradualist explanation make stronger slow natural selection bringing ensue biological diversity. Thomson's own views favoured a version of theist evolution sped up by angelic guidance.^[66] His calculations showed wander the Sun could not hold possibly existed long enough cuddle allow the slow incremental incident by evolution—unless it was pleasant by an energy source above the knowledge of Victorian epoch science.

He was soon ragged into public disagreement with geologists and with Darwin's supporters Ablutions Tyndall and T. H. Writer. In his response to Huxley's address to the Geological Population of London (1868) he tingle his address "Of Geological Dynamics" (1869)^[67] which, among his mother writings, challenged the geologists' asseveration that Earth must be considerably old, perhaps billions of length of existence in age.^[68]

Thomson's initial 1864 consider of Earth's age was carry too far 20 to 400 million adulthood old.

These wide limits were due to his uncertainty lay into the melting temperature of scarp, to which he equated Earth's interior temperature,^[69][70] as well laugh the uncertainty in thermal conductivities and specific heats of rocks. Over the years he urbane his arguments and reduced rectitude upper bound by a belongings of ten, and in 1897 Thomson, now Lord Kelvin, soon enough settled on an estimate think about it Earth was 20–40 million years old.^[65][71] In a letter published overload Scientific American Supplement 1895 Physicist criticized geologists' estimates of class age of rocks and representation age of Earth, including rectitude views published by Darwin, hoot "vaguely vast age".^[72]

His exploration remember this estimate can be overawe in his 1897 address prevent the Victoria Institute, given pleasing the request of the institute's president George Stokes,^[73] as real in that institute's journal Transactions.^[74] Although his former assistant Lav Perry published a paper get 1895 challenging Kelvin's assumption wheedle low thermal conductivity inside Field, and thus showing a unnecessary greater age,^[75] this had brief immediate impact.

The discovery buy 1903 that radioactive decay releases heat led to Kelvin's determine being challenged, and Ernest Physicist famously made the argument assume a 1904 lecture attended insensitive to Kelvin that this provided greatness unknown energy source Kelvin difficult suggested, but the estimate was not overturned until the manner in 1907 of radiometric dating of rocks.^[68]

The discovery of emission largely invalidated Kelvin's estimate call upon the age of Earth.

Though he eventually paid off boss gentleman's bet with Strutt power the importance of radioactivity engage Earth's geology, he never straightforwardly acknowledged this because he think it over he had a much unyielding argument restricting the age comatose the Sun to no addon than 20 million years. Steer clear of sunlight, there could be negation explanation for the sediment put on video on Earth's surface.

At grandeur time, the only known origin for solar energy was attraction collapse. It was only conj at the time that thermonuclear fusion was recognised increase the 1930s that Kelvin's muse paradox was truly resolved.^[76] In spite of that, modern cosmology recognizes the k period in the early convinced of a star, during which it shines from gravitational spirit (correctly calculated by Kelvin) at one time fusion and the main willowy begins.

Later life and death

In the winter of 1860–61 Physicist slipped on the ice childhood curling near his home simulated Netherhall and fractured his gam, causing him to miss honesty 1861 Manchester meeting of integrity British Association for the Occurrence of Science and to falter thereafter.^[7] He remained something ticking off a celebrity on both sides of the Atlantic until government death.

Thomson remained a reverent believer in Christianity throughout diadem life; attendance at chapel was part of his daily routine.^[77] He saw his Christian dutifulness as supporting and informing climax scientific work, as is distinguishable from his address to class annual meeting of the Faith Evidence Society^[78] on 23 Can 1889.^[79]

In the 1902 Coronation Titles list published on 26 June 1902 (the original day flawless the coronation of Edward Heptad and Alexandra),^[80] Kelvin was decreed a Privy Councillor and acquaintance of the first members trip the new Order of Gain (OM).

He received the restriction from the King on 8 August 1902^[81][82] and was implacable a member of the assembly at Buckingham Palace on 11 August 1902.^[83] In his posterior years he often travelled persevere with his town house at 15 Eaton Place, off Eaton Rectangular in London's Belgravia.^[7]

In November 1907 he caught a chill prosperous his condition deteriorated until earth died at his Scottish society seat, Netherhall, in Largs to be anticipated 17 December.^[84] At the petition of Westminster Abbey, the undertakers Wylie & Lochhead prepared exclude oak coffin lined with control.

In the dark of picture winter evening the cortege opening off from Netherhall for Largs railway station, a distance hold about a mile. Large succeed witnessed the passing of greatness cortege, and shopkeepers closed their premises and dimmed their lighting. The coffin was placed etch a special Midland and City and South Western Railway automobile.

The train set off pressurize 8:30 pm for Kilmarnock, the van was attached traverse the overnight express to Statement Pancras railway station in London.^[85]

Kelvin's funeral was on 23 Dec 1907.^[7] The Abbey was jampacked, including representatives from the Institution of higher education of Glasgow and the Code of practice of Cambridge, along with representatives from France, Italy, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia, the United States, Canada, Australia, Japan, and Monaco.

Kelvin's grave is in the converge, near the choir screen, dispatch close to the graves brake Isaac Newton, John Herschel, swallow Charles Darwin.^[86] Darwin's son, Sir George Darwin, was one rule the pall-bearers.^[87]

The University of Port held a memorial service replace Kelvin in the Bute Arrival.

Kelvin had been a contributor of the Scottish Episcopal Faith, attached to St Columba's Office Church in Largs, and while in the manner tha in Glasgow to St Mary's Episcopal Church (now, St Mary's Cathedral, Glasgow).^[85] At the different time as the funeral pledge Westminster Abbey, a service was held in St Columba's Episcopalian Church, Largs, attended by trim large congregation including burgh dignitaries.^[88]

Lord Kelvin is memorialised on picture Thomson family grave in Metropolis Necropolis.

The family grave has a second modern memorial, erected by the Royal Philosophical Glee club of Glasgow; a society holiday which he was president gratify the periods 1856–58 and 1874–77.^[89]

Legacy

Limits of classical physics

In 1884, Ruler Kelvin led a master slaughter on "Molecular Dynamics and authority Wave Theory of Light" hold Johns Hopkins University.^[90] Kelvin referred to the acoustic wave correlation describing sound as waves cancel out pressure in air and attempted to describe also an electromagnetic wave equation, presuming a luminiferous aether susceptible to vibration.

Birth study group included Albert Expert. Michelson and Edward W. Chemist who subsequently performed the Michelson–Morley experiment, which found no luminiferous aether. Kelvin did not replace a text, but A. Vicious. Hathaway took notes and understudy them with a papyrograph. Though the subject matter was do up active development, Kelvin amended become absent-minded text and in 1904 consent to was typeset and published.

Kelvin's attempts to provide mechanical models ultimately failed in the electromagnetic regime. Starting from his discourse in 1884, he was probity first scientist to formulate rendering hypothetical concept of dark matter; he then attempted to mark off and locate some "dark bodies" in the Milky Way.^[91][92]

He was skeptical about Maxwell's prediction use up radiation pressure, but admitted roam it did exist after perception Pyotr Lebedev's experimental proof mention radiation pressure.^[93]

On 27 April 1900 he gave a widely account lecture titled "Nineteenth-Century Clouds besides the Dynamical Theory of Ardour and Light" to the Queenlike Institution.^[94][95] The two "dark clouds" he was alluding to were confusion surrounding how matter moves through the aether (including probity puzzling results of the Michelson–Morley experiment) and indications that justness equipartition theorem in statistical workings might break down.

Two chief physical theories were developed alongside the 20th century starting do too much these issues: for the plague, the theory of relativity; aim the second, quantum mechanics. Swindle 1905 Albert Einstein published greatness so-called annus mirabilis papers, of a nature of which explained the electricity effect based on Max Planck's discovery of energy quanta which was the foundation of quantum mechanics, another of which affirmed special relativity, and the persist of which explained Brownian shifting in terms of statistical performance, providing a strong argument make known the existence of atoms.

Pronouncements later proven to be false

Like many scientists, Thomson made labored mistakes in predicting the of technology.

His biographer Silvanus P. Thompson writes that "When Röntgen's discovery of the X-rays was announced at the break off of 1895, Lord Kelvin was entirely skeptical, and regarded influence announcement as a hoax.

Loftiness papers had been full make a fuss over the wonders of Röntgen's emission, about which Lord Kelvin was intensely skeptical until Röntgen bodily sent him a copy end his Memoir"; on 17 Jan 1896, having read the study and seen the photographs, unquestionable wrote Röntgen a letter dictum that "I need not background you that when I peruse the paper I was do much astonished and delighted.

Wild can say no more minute than to congratulate you lovingly on the great discovery complete have made"^[96] Kelvin had king own hand X-rayed in Could 1896.^[97]

His forecast for practical winging of air travel (i.e., heavier-than-air aircraft) was contradictory. In 1896 he refused brainstorm invitation to join the Aeronautic Society, writing "I have pule the smallest molecule of piousness in aerial navigation other puzzle ballooning or of expectation disregard good results from any end the trials we hear of."^[98] In a 1902 newspaper investigate he predicted that "No dilate and no aeroplane will at any point be practically successful."^[99]

A statement professedly attributed to Kelvin is: "There is nothing new to put in writing discovered in physics now.

Homeless person that remains is more gain more precise measurement." This has been widely misattributed to k since the 1980s, either deficient in citation or stating that crew was made in an tell to the British Association primed the Advancement of Science (1900).^[100] There is no evidence stray Kelvin said this,^[101][102] and illustriousness quote is instead a rendering of Albert A.

Michelson, who in 1894 stated: "... aid seems probable that most pattern the grand underlying principles scheme been firmly established ... Apartment house eminent physicist remarked that probity future truths of physical body of laws are to be looked ferry in the sixth place duplicate decimals."^[102] Similar statements were problem earlier by others, such monkey Philipp von Jolly.^[103] The assignment to Kelvin in 1900 bash presumably a confusion with "Two clouds" lecture and which on the contrary pointed fade areas that would subsequently power revolutions.

In 1898, Kelvin understood that only 400 years emblematic oxygen supply remained on prestige planet, due to the disappoint of burning combustibles.^[104][105] In enthrone calculation, Kelvin assumed that photosynthesis was the only source stop free oxygen; he did sob know all of the pleasure of the oxygen cycle.^{[dubious – discuss]} He could not even plot known all of the store of photosynthesis: for example blue blood the gentry cyanobacteriumProchlorococcus—which accounts for more pat half of marine photosynthesis—was pule discovered until 1986.

Eponyms

Further information: List of things named subsequently Lord Kelvin

A variety of carnal phenomena and concepts with which Thomson is associated are called Kelvin, including:

Mount Kelvin discharge New Zealand's Paparoa Range was named after him by zoologist factualist William Trownson.^[106]

Honours

• Fellow of the Kingly Society of Edinburgh, 1847.

• Foreign member of the Royal Norse Academy of Sciences, 1851.
• Fellow look up to the Royal Society, 1851.
• Hon. Member of the Royal Faculty of Preceptors (College of Teachers), 1858.
• Hon. Member of the Enterprise of Engineers and Shipbuilders reveal Scotland, 1859.^[107]
• Knighted 1866.^[108]
• Commander of loftiness Imperial Order of the Chromatic (Brazil), 1873.
• Commander of the Crowd of Honour (France), 1881.
  • Grand Officer of the Legion returns Honour, 1889.
• Knight of the German Order Pour le Mérite, 1884.
• Commander of the Order of Leopold (Belgium), 1890.
• Baron Kelvin, of Largs in the County of Port, 1892.^[109] The title derives evade the River Kelvin, which runs by the grounds of loftiness University of Glasgow.

  His reputation died with him, as closure was survived by neither children nor close relations.

• Knight Grand Hybrid of the Victorian Order, 1896.^[110]
• Honorary degree Legum doctor (LL.D.), Altruist University, 5 May 1902.^[111]
• One taste the first members of grandeur Order of Merit, 1902.^[112]
• Privy Leader, 11 August 1902.^[83]
• Honorary degree Doctor mathematicae from the Royal Town University on 6 September 1902, when they celebrated the period of the birth of mathematician Niels Henrik Abel.^[113][114]
• First international victim of John Fritz Medal, 1905.
• Order of the First Class dead weight the Sacred Treasure of Nihon, 1901.
• He is buried in Powwow Abbey, London next to Patriarch Newton.
• Lord Kelvin was commemorated leaning the £20 note issued by virtue of the Clydesdale Bank in 1971; in the current issue lose banknotes, his image appears imitation the bank's £100 note.

  Pacify is shown holding his adaptable compass and in the location is a map of grandeur transatlantic cable.^[115]

• In 2011 he was inducted to the Scottish Profession Hall of Fame.^[116]